Pathways to Prosperity: Comparing the Impact of Industrial Diversification in Russia and the United States

 

Wenshu Hou

 

 

Introduction

 

“Industry” is a general term that inseparably relates to people’s lives; even items that people use every day are a part of the concept that is industry. For example, Henry Ford implemented the assembly line concept in his automobile company(Tomac et al., 2019). Ford divided the process of car assembly into simplified steps, which have specific workers repeat the particular steps. The car assembly line leads to workers only needing to specialize in a specific part of the car production, which makes workers skillful on their job with slightly mild work stress and enhances the efficiency of the car’s manufacturer (Tomac et al., 2019). Briefly, Ford’s example not only proves the productivity of the assembly line, but it also mainly justifies the industry’s significance to people’s lives.

Although industry brings a lot of benefits to society, what happens if a country has many different industries? Industrial diversification means a country expands the market reach of products and services to eradicate the influence of a single industrial structure on its economy or politics（Wang et al., 2024). While industrial diversification is an ideal theory, the real world is complex, which means that this theory needs real examples to prove it. By observing two sample countries, the United States and Russia, it is clear that not only do they have different industrial structures, but they also don’t have a big gap in national power and are well-known worldwide. Firstly, the economic size of the two countries is nearly the same. The United States has the largest global economy（Khan et al., 2021), and  Russia has the fifth largest economy (Belyaeva et al., 2019) in the world. In addition, the territorial area of the two countries cannot be much different. According to Figure 1, Russia has the largest territory in the world, with a total area of 17,098,242 square kilometers. Meanwhile, the United States has the third largest territory, with a tertiary area of 9,833,517 square kilometers (CIA, 2024).

Figure 1

 

The 30 largest countries in the world by total area

 

 

Note: Visual infographic on the largest countries in the world by total area (in square kilometers). From CIA in  Statista. Retrieved April 19, 2024, fromhttps:  //www.statista.com /statistics /262955 /largest-countries-in-the-world/.

 

 

Finally, both countries have different historical growth trajectories, which is why they have different industrial systems. However, the US and Russia are very focused on secondary and tertiary industry development. Therefore, this evidence proves that the US and Russia both have great territory, powerful economic strength, and different industrial structures. These similarities enable the comparison of industrial diversification between the US and Russia.

 

Therefore, the purpose of this research paper is to compare and contrast how history, economy, politics, and major industrial systems have impacted two respective countries with differing degrees of industrial diversification after the “Cold War,” namely the United States and Russia, and how industrial diversification becomes a pathway to nation-wide economic prosperity and political superiority overall.

 

Historical Factors Lead to Differences in the Development of Industry Between Russia and the United States

 

Introduction:

 

            A country’s historical heritage or decisions made in the past tend to influence the development of the country in its future endeavors and overall trajectory. For example, Russia and the US experienced the same period with similar historical identities during the Cold War. The United States and the Soviet Union（Russia’s predecessor） competed in various industries as representatives of the capitalist and socialist economic systems. So, the result of these ideologies and systems on the future of Russia and the United States undoubtedly influenced contemporary progress and led to either the regression or the progression of the industries in these two countries.

 

The Industrial Level of the US and the USSR during the Cold War：

 

Since the historical trajectory impacts the current development of industry between Russia and the United States, the Cold War is an unavoidable topic. Because the USSR (Russia’s predecessor) and the US wanted to compete for international political status during the Cold War (Zhang & Seely, 2019),  many large-scale national research institutions used for different fields were established by the USSR and the USA during the Cold War (Fan, 2021). Therefore, industries also underwent substantial development, and the level of industries between the two countries is identical. For example, the USA and USSR-led aerospace engineering skills had a dramatic improvement. The competition between the USA and USSR in the Cold War was called the “Space Race”(Avachat, 2024).  In 1957,  The USSR (Russia’s predecessor) launched the first satellite, Sputnik 1(Witze, 2022). After four years,  a Soviet cosmonaut, Gagarin, became the first person to go to space (Pessoa Filho, 2021).

In response to the USSR’s technological superiority, which was considered to be global competition, U.S. President Kennedy gave a speech titled “We Choose to Go to the Moon,” which was described as “a geopolitical prestige project, a response to the country falling behind in the Cold War space race”(Witze, 2022, p. 398).  According to “The Western European Left and the First Moon Landing”（2022),  the USA started the Apollo program, which led to the USA becoming the first country to send ​​an astronaut to land on the Moon after a speech. Because other countries have never researched landing skills,  the Apollo plan also successfully breaks the USSR’s superiority in aerospace technology  (DiLisi, 2019). This context explains how the USSR and the US government’s vigorously developed technology in various fields during the Cold War, which led to comparable and competitive industry strengths of both countries. Therefore, the level of industry in the United States and the Soviet Union was almost the same due to competition.

 

Difference in Industrial Development Trends after the Cold War：

 

The decline of Russia after the collapse of the Soviet Union：

 

The collapse of the Soviet Union led to an economic gap between Russia and the United States after the Cold War. Although the Cold War led to the great development of USA and USSR industries, the collapse of the Soviet Union was the starting point for the disparity in industry between the USSR and the United States. The USSR has been divided into 15 countries (Neufeld et al. 2021), pointing to one reason why Russia was established. However, Russia’s early economy was profoundly influenced by the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which also negatively impacted Russia’s industries.

 

On one hand, corruption frequently appeared in early Russia. Many post-Soviet Union-owned companies belonged to the private sector, which was called “large-scale privatization”(Kim, 2021). Only a few people called ‘oligarchs’  can control most property in Russia, and oligarchs have a complex network of relationships with government officials (2021). Therefore, the benefits structure of all industries was not transparent. Politicians, government officials, and business owners/managers can exploit the company’s interests, respectively (Vasilev & Felton, 2024). This evidence can prove that Russia did not inherit the Soviet Union’s economic heritage​​ and many statement- owned company’s assets have been embezzled by oligarchs. This corruption detrimentally influenced Russia’s fiscal revenue to the extent that Russia doesn’t have the money to develop advanced industries.

 

On the other hand, inflation in the economy also appeared in early Russia. “As the Soviet empire unraveled, dismantling the core institutions of the planned economy, the Russian government of President Boris Yeltsin introduced a series of reforms that ….. liberalized prices and foreign exchange and launched mass privatization of previously state‐owned property”(Gerber & Gimpelson, 2024, p. 2). This evidence proves that the Russian government didn’t even have an institution that could manage the market economy. Therefore, the government only indulges in product price fluctuation, which leads to inflation and decreases currency value. The cost of upgrading new industries will also be higher, which impacts industry development speed and quality negatively.

 

In conclusion, Russia’s economic inflation and official corruption made the government unable to develop science and technology to promote industries efficiently after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Therefore, Russia’s industry might become obsolete

and singular in the future.

 

The rise of the United States after the collapse of the Soviet Union：

 

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States experienced rapid economic and industrial development. Although the USSR experienced a financial crisis after the collapse, the United States had the opportunity to develop its industry. The collapse of the Soviet Union deprived the United States of its greatest competitor in various fields.

 

Firstly, a large number of scientific researchers from the Soviet Union immigrated to the United States. “After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1992, several hundred Soviet mathematicians left the country and settled in the United States” (Borjas, 2019, p. 25). This evidence mentions that many valuable mathematicians immigrated to the United States. Not only can this evidence confirm that each institution in the United States allocates many technical talents, but mathematicians’ immigration can also justify Russia’s early social chaos after the Cold War. Meanwhile, those soviet mathematicians also cultivated many talents for American mathematics: “ Soviet mathematicians…Exposing American mathematicians to new theorems and techniques could increase the productivity of the mathematicians working in those fields” (Borjas, 2019, p. 25). Therefore, those  Soviet mathematicians obviously contributed to various industries in the United States. Meanwhile, it’s not just mathematicians who immigrate to the United States from a macro perspective. There are many different technicians who immigrated to the United States from the Soviet Union, such as scientists and engineers who helped the United States Department to enhance local industry.

 

Additionally,  the collapse of the Soviet Union allowed many Warsaw Pact countries to open their market economy. Many American enterprises have had the chance to invest in local businesses. For example, the US beverage industry would engage in Eastern European countries that were member states of the Warsaw Pact. During the Cold War, the USSR government isolated the Coca-Cola trade in the USSR’s market. Because Coca-Cola symbolized the form of capitalist society, the Soviet Union did not allow anything that was contrary to socialist ideology to exist in the USSR’s society(Tran, 2021). However, many Coca-Cola factories were established in many Eastern European countries after the end of the Cold War, such as Poland, Bulgaria, and the Czech Republic(POP, 2020). Therefore, the company from the United States has accepted many opportunities for cooperation with the local government, which can promote the quality and experience of the developed industry.

 

Conclusion：

            In conclusion, the Cold War is a topic that cannot be avoided when discussing industrial diversification between Russia and the US. This period decided the trajectory of both countries’ industry development. On the one hand, the similarities between Russia and the United States in terms of industry is that both countries had the same industrial level during this period. On the other hand, the difference between Russia and the United States in industry development is also related to the Cold War. The collapse of the USSR led the US and Russia to experience great chasms in industrial strength because the disintegration of the USSR would face the problem of economic and political turmoil domestically. Therefore, Russia did not have the money or material resources to develop industrial techniques. Because many USSR technical personnel immigrated to the US, US enterprises had the opportunity to explore the Eastern European market. This enabled the US can enhance and spread industry based on sufficient human and material resources, making their country more likely to attain industrial diversification..

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Comparison of the secondary and tertiary industries between the Soviet Union and the United States after the Cold War

 

Introduction:

 

            Although historical factors impact countries’ industrial diversification, the country’s current industrial development is also an essential part of determining what type of industry a country has. Each country has its main industry type. For example, Brazil is a vast agricultural export country(Abrhám et al., 2021). Each industry that the government focuses on is highly related to agricultural products, such as the food industry(Mantovani et al., 2019). Meanwhile, advanced agriculture in Brazil can also prove that Brazil has a holistic primary industry, which industry is responsible for extracting raw materials in the production chain of a product, such as the food industry (Magdalena & Suhatman, 2020). Because Russia and the United States are prominent industrial powers, their industries focus on mechanical engineering and high-tech fields. Industry is extremely complex, and some industries are also combined with agriculture. For the purpose of comparison, the secondary and tertiary industries in Russia and the United States are good samples for analysis. The concept of secondary industry describes an industry that aims to manufacture or refine consumables, such as household items made by factories, plastics synthesized in chemical experiments, and oil or metals produced by mining (Mao, 2021, p.1). In addition, the definition of tertiary industry centers on serving people, such as in tourism and high-tech industries. Finally, the construction and comparison of secondary and tertiary industries will show the economic strength and political superiority of a country that maintains industrial diversification.

 

Similarity in Secondary Industry:

 

Introduction:

 

            A country must have vast territory and rich resources if it wants to build a secondary industry. The US and Russia obviously can satisfy both conditions. Firstly, the territory areas of the US and Russia are the first and third largest in the world, at 17,098,242 square kilometers and 9,833,517 square kilometers, respectively(CIA, 2024). Additionally, a basic principle of the secondary industry is that the industry manufactures or refines consumables (Mao, 2021), which also means the importance of mineral resources to the secondary industry. According to the research by Arkhipova(2020), “natural resources of the Far Eastern Federal District (FEFD) are, in essence, its advantage. Thus, a significant share in the all-Russian balance of reserves and production are gold (reserves 33% and production 44%), silver (35% and 65%), platinum (production – more than 15% for platinum, about 4% platinoids)”(Arkhipova & Leontiev, 2020, p. 2). Meanwhile, the United States also has abundant mineral resources. For example, coal reserves in the United States are estimated to be approximately 250 billion tons (Kalisz et al., 2022). Therefore, the data on land area and natural resources of Russia and the United States can prove that both countries have a solid foundation to build a strong secondary industry.

In addition, there are many types of secondary industries, but those industries are often related to raw material processing. Meanwhile, the US and Russia always produce different global news around energy topics, such as the Russo-Ukrainian War and the Gulf War. So, the strength of the U.S. and Russian energy industries can reflect the overall level of the secondary industry.

 

Secondary Industry in Russia:

 

            After the collapse of the USSR, Russia needed money to make up for financial shortfalls, which could rescue Russia’s crumbling economy. The mineral resources of the Russian Far East and the industrial heritage of the Soviet Union give Russia the potential to sustain its economy because industrial raw materials are an urgent need for every country.  Therefore, the pillar industries of Russia’s secondary industry are related to energy and raw materials.

 

On the one hand, Russia’s energy industry has caused the need for foreign currency exchanges, which contribute to local GDP. According to research by Balashov(2020), “Russia is one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of oil and natural gas. Oil and gas sector products accounted for more than 65% of Russian exports before the fall in mineral prices in 2015 and made up more than half of Russian exports in 2017–2018”(Balashova & Serletis, 2020). Not only can this evidence prove that the energy industry makes a huge contribution to the Russian economy, but also the profit of the energy industry occupies 65% of Russia’s export financial share, which also alludes to the possibility of secondary being Russia’s main type of industry. Therefore, the energy industry will enable Russia to achieve economic growth while the developing energy industry has enabled Russia to become a country dominated by the secondary industry.

 

On the other hand, Russia’s energy industry can also influence geopolitics. According to the “ Academic Journal of Science and Technology”(2024), “ Oil and gas resources serve as the lifeblood of the industrial economy, playing a crucial role in the nation’s economic operation and social development”(Ding et al., 2024, p.100). Many countries depend on oil and gas resources, which illustrates the importance of Russia’s energy industry. Nord Stream II is an example of Russia’s impact on European geopolitics. “After the two parties failed to agree on a new contract, Gazprom stopped supplying Ukraine on 1 January 2006 and again on 1 January 2009…A severe gas-supply crisis ensued in Europe”(Noel, 2019,p. 89). Therefore, the development of the secondary industry and its monopoly on energy have given Russia some political initiative in Europe. Thus, not only can the Russian secondary industry impact European geopolitics, but the Russian economy also relies on the benefit of secondary industry.

 

Secondary Industry in the United States:

While  Russia’s pioneering secondary industry can be described as robust, the US also has a powerful secondary industry. However, the US must abide by a policy to reserve natural resources for strategic storage. For example, the SPR( US Strategic Petroleum Reserve) is a kind of natural reserve plan that handles various crises, such as the oil crisis. According to the investigation by Kilian and Zhou(2020), “ the cumulative effect of the SPR releases after the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 was a reduction of $2 per barrel in the real price of oil after seven months”(Kilian & Zhou, 2020, p. 673). This environmental endeavor shows that, while the United States mainly focuses on the development of the secondary industry, their reason for developing the secondary industry is not for profit. Each decision of the secondary industry is considered from the perspective of national response to urgent threats. Meanwhile, each policy that is used to solve the crisis is also efficient. Therefore, the holistic strength of the US secondary industry is apparent.

 

Furthermore, the protection of secondary industry by the US government can also show the US’s political superiority. The US has a large oil industry overseas, too. If the US’s oil industry were another organization, the US would cooperate with other countries to protect their national enterprise. For example, The US government protected oil benefits in the Middle East and launched the Gulf War (Joshi, 2023). The US cooperated with 34 countries, sending troops to the Gulf area to resist Iraq invading Kuwait. If Kuwait is occupied by Iraq, the global oil supply chain will be devastated, which will lead to oil prices in a different country having an exponential increase. Therefore, the US commanded the 34-nation coalition to trigger the Gulf War. Not only can the Gulf War prove that the US has international influence to protect its oil interest in the Middle East, but the success of deployed troops also can be that the US has a huge secondary industry chain in the Middle East.

 

Conclusion(Similarity in Secondary Industry):

            In conclusion, both the US and Russia have valuable secondary industries. On the one hand, the Russian energy industry contributes many funds to the Russian local economy. Meanwhile, the Russian energy industry can control European geopolitics. Therefore, the Russian secondary industry realizes the phenomenon of economic growth and social stability. On the other hand, USA’s political policy relies on their local industry to achieve self-sufficiency. If some catastrophe, such as the oil crisis, influences the world, then the US has enough resources to ensure the domestic situation is not impacted by catastrophe. This is also the reason why the United States will use many resources to protect their secondary industry. Although the US has rich resources to raise their secondary industry and Russia’s energy industry to earn money, the US government did not sell out that resource. It also proves that the secondary is not the US’s pillar of the economy.  Therefore, the United States may have more industrial types than Russia or more industrial diversity.

 

Difference of Tertiary Industry:

 

Tertiary Industry in Russia:

 

            The tertiary industry in Russia is similar to traditional service industries, such as tourism. Russia has a long history and many famous landscapes, such as the Red Square, Winter Palace, and Kremlin. According to “Development and importance of tourism for Russia”(2018), Russia’s tourism yields around 6.31 billion US dollars. This evidence proves that tourism can increase local GDP. Meanwhile, the report from Agaeva states that  “The tourism potential of Russia is underutilized, and the share of tourism in the country’s GDP is only 3.4 percent.”(Agaeva, 2021, p. 1420). Therefore, Russian tourism has great potential for development, which also implies great development in the Russian tertiary industry in the future.

Furthermore, the tertiary industry is also a good approach to diplomat politics. When many foreigners and politicians visit Russia, the exquisite service industry can make tourists’ journeys smoother. For example, Russia has a lot of cultural landscapes, such as the Kremlin and Winter Palace. Russian government invites foreign guests to visit these attractions. Not only can those landscapes show hospitality to foreign guests, but these attractions also make the process of diplomatic exchanges smoother to extrapolate the progress of diplomatic negotiations.

 

 

 

Tertiary Industry in the US:

 

The development of the tertiary industry in the US is completely different from Russia. The tertiary industry is a separate industry that uses different technologies, unlike the traditional service industry. US companies, such as Apple, Google, and Microsoft, always combine service with information technology(Stone, 2020). This feature can be shown on the products of those companies. For example, Siri is an AI(Artificial Intelligence) product that can provide personalized service for their customers. Apple customers can use language to communicate with Siri to enable Apple products to implement certain functions, such as travel arrangements and Information searching（Garcia et al., 2020). Therefore, those US companies depend on efficient service and excellent products to earn many benefits. For example, Apple’s official website states that ”Apple today announced financial results for its fiscal 2022 fourth quarter ended September 24, 2022. The Company posted a September quarter record revenue of $90.1 billion, up 8 percent year over year…”(Apple, 2022, para. 1 ). Furthermore, the US also has many of those types of companies, such as Amazon, X, and Google…. Therefore, the model of tertiary industry in the US is different from that of Russia. Meanwhile, the new model of the tertiary industry, which includes information technology and services, has allowed US enterprises to obtain much profit in the business market.

 

Moreover, the excellent tertiary industry can attract many prudent foreign people who immigrate to the US. For example, the US government provides the H-1B visa to allow foreign people to work in the US’s tertiary industry. It only offers jobs that require a theoretical and practical application that caters to the requirements of the US  tertiary industry（Bound et al.,2021). According to research by Keer,  “April 2020 for fiscal year 2021…Estimates suggest that …5,000 individuals the number of H-1B awards to holders of masters degrees”(Kerr & Kerr, 2020, p. 10).  Meanwhile, the H-1B visa aims to invite foreign talent from different fields to experience American corporate culture. The US government can find the opportunity to attract those talents working for the US(Jacobs, 2022). Employment advantages of the tertiary industry in the United States make that immigration to the United States is a modern trend. Cultural appeal also represents a policy victory for the United States.

 

Conclusion(Difference in Tertiary Industry):

 

            The Russian tertiary industry is a traditional service-based industry which places an emphasis on tourism. Not only can the Russian tertiary increase Russian local GDP, but it is also an excellent service that can help Russia to gain political dominance, such as diplomacy. Moreover, the US tertiary industry differs from the traditional service industry. Many US enterprises, such as Apple, combine the service industry with technology. For example, Apple created an AI(Artificial Intelligence) called Siri, which can provide personalized service to Apple’s clients. Thus, Apple products are popular worldwide, and Apple’s taxes in the U.S. are reflected in the U.S. GDP. Meanwhile, the US’s tertiary industry allows many foreign people to join US nationality. Therefore, the tertiary industry helps the US to obtain an advantage in policy, which attracts many people to work for the US and ensures human resources in the US. Therefore, the new model of tertiary industry in the US illustrates that the US is much closer to the degree of industrial diversification.

 

Evaluation and Conclusion

 

Evaluation :

          After analyzing historical factors, as well as secondary and tertiary industries, it is evident that the US has a higher degree of industrial diversification. Firstly, the collapse of the USSR led Russia to falter in economy and politics, which caused Russia to face numerous obstacles in developing industry. Thus, the US could occupy the USSR’s original market, compromising the USSR’s dominance in the industry race. Secondly, Russia has a robust secondary industry, which stabilizes the local economy and controls the geopolitics of Europe. Furthermore, the US has a robust secondary industry with rich natural resources to support and develop. But the Russian secondary industry is often sanctioned by global forces. For example, “Russia…Between 2009 and 2018 there is a gradual increase with periodic fluctuations … in the world, including export restrictions imposed by sanctions, etc. Nevertheless, 68% falls on the products of the fuel and energy complex, 10% on metals ” (Arkhipova & Leontiev, 2020, p. 2). However, the US government’s policy seeks to reserve those resources as strategic resources to handle various challenges such as oil crises. This detail also proves that the US does not rely on its secondary industry and implies that it is closer to industrial diversification than Russia. Finally, the tertiary industry in the US is integrating technology and service. In comparison, Russia only has a traditional tertiary(service industry). Therefore, based on previous analysis, the U.S. industry is more diversified than Russia.

Futhermore, if a country has industrial diversity, this can provide stability within the economy and political sectors. Meanwhile, industrial diversity can prompt economic growth and political expansion. Firstly, industrial diversification can result in the combination of industries that continually upgrade the proficiency and usability of technology. Therefore, the industry can also produce high-quality and novel products, which can gain investments from different institutions or be favored by different users, such as Apple. Meanwhile, the local country’s old industries consolidate the business’s original value, providing many opportunities to explore new industries. Secondly, a country with high industrial diversification can influence global politics. Because industrial diversification consolidates the country’s economy and resources, the country has sufficient money to extend international influence. Furthermore, the plentiful political capital can also attract business capital, which provides government credibility and a safeguard for business investment. Therefore, industrial diversification can promise nationwide economic prosperity and political superiority. Moreover, the country’s economy will provide opportunities for mutual development if any issues or conflicts arise.

 

Conclusion:

In conclusion, it is undeniable that the US industry has a higher industry level than tht of Russia’s. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a political and economic downturn in Russia. Moreover, Russia has advanced secondary industry, which can positively impact the economy and geopolitics. However,  the single industry makes the Russian economy vulnerable to sanctions, and political influence is geographically limited. Nevertheless, the US’s past economic conditions have created a strong basis for industrial development in contemporary times. The US’s secondary and tertiary industries enable the US to gain absolute political and economic advantages worldwide. Therefore, by comparing these two countries, the most valuable takeaway seems to be that industrial diversification is a pathway to economic prosperity and political superiority.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reference

 

Abrhám, J., Vošta, M., Čajka, P., & Rubáček, F. (2021). The specifics of selected agricultural commodities in international trade. Agricultural and Resource Economics, 7(2), 5–19. https://doi.org/10.51599/are.2021.07.02.01

 

Agaeva, L. K. (2021). Practice Of Attracting Investments Into Tourism Development In The Russian Federation Regions. In S. I. Ashmarina, V. V. Mantulenko, M. I. Inozemtsev, & E. L. Sidorenko (Eds.), Global Challenges and Prospects of The Modern Economic Development, vol 106. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 1420-1428). European Publisher. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2021.04.02.169

 

ALPAGO, H. (2021). INFLATION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF MONETARY REGULATION. İmgelem, 5(9), 281–293. https://doi.org/10.53791/imgelem.994473

 

Apple. (2022, October 27). Apple reports fourth quarter results. Apple Newsroom. https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2022/10/apple-reports-fourth-quarter-results/

 

Arkhipova, Y., & Leontiev, R. (2020). Increasing the attractiveness of investment projects in the mining industry of the Russian Far East. E3S Web of Conferences, 192, 3002-. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202019203002

 

Avachat, V. (2024). Rocket Science for The Space Race. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4674802

Balashova, S., & Serletis, A. (2020). Oil prices shocks and the Russian economy. The Journal of Economic Asymmetries, 21, e00148.

 

Belyaeva, G. I., Kosyakova, I. V., Forrester, S. V., & Ustinova, G. H. (2019). IDENTIFICATION OF WAYS TO IMPROVE ECONOMIC SECURITY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH OF RUSSIA. GCPMED 2018 – INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE GLOBAL CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF THE MODERN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, 57, 860–868. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2019.03.85

 

Borjas, G. J. (2019). Immigration and economic growth.

 

Bound, J., Braga, B., Khanna, G., & Turner, S. (2021). The globalization of postsecondary education: The role of international students in the US higher education system. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 35(1), 163-184.

 

CIA. (March 21, 2024). The 30 largest countries in the world by total area (in square kilometers) [Graph]. In Statista. Retrieved April 06, 2024, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/262955/largest-countries-in-the-world/

 

Development and importance of tourism for Russia. Worlddata.info. (2018, May). https://www.worlddata.info/europe/russia/tourism.php

 

DiLisi, G. A., Chaney, A., & Brown, G. (2019). The Legacies of Apollo 11. The Physics Teacher, 57(5), 282–286. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.5098911

 

Ding, X., Li, H., & Ou, S. (2024). A Review of Intelligent Research Dynamics in Oil and Gas Exploration and Development. Academic Journal of Science and Technology, 10(1), 100-104.

 

FAN, C. (2021). Evolution of strategic scientific and technological power: The world and China. Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Chinese Version), 36(5), 533-543.

 

Fentahun, G. (2023). Foreign aid in the post-colonial Africa: Means for building democracy or ensuring Western domination? Cogent Social Sciences, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2241257

 

Garcia, K., David Schwyn, D., & Michahelles, F. (2020, October). A Digital Companion for Air Travelers. In 22nd International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services (pp. 1-6).

 

Gerber, T. P., & Gimpelson, V. (2024). Inequality and social stratification in Russia during the Putin regime: From market transition to war on Ukraine. Sociology Compass, 18(3). https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.13196

 

Jacobs, E. (2022). Work visas and return migration: How migration policy shapes global talent. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 48(7), 1647-1668.

 

Joshi, A. (2023). How has the US maintained hegemony in the international oil trade through its control of the Middle East? Journal of Global Faultlines, 10(2), 133–148.

 

Kalisz, S., Kibort, K., Mioduska, J., Lieder, M., & Małachowska, A. (2022). Waste management in the mining industry of metals ores, coal, oil and natural gas – A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 304, 114239–114239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114239

 

Kerr, S. P., & Kerr, W. R. (2020). Immigration policy levers for us innovation and startups.

 

Khan, I., Hou, F., & Le, H. P. (2021). The impact of natural resources, energy consumption, and population growth on environmental quality: Fresh evidence from the United States of America. The Science of the Total Environment, 754, 142222–142222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142222

 

Kilian, L., & Zhou, X. (2020). Does drawing down the US Strategic Petroleum Reserve help stabilize oil prices? Journal of Applied Econometrics (Chichester, England), 35(6), 673–691. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.2798

 

Kim, S. (2021). Comparative analysis of the large-scale privatization in Russia and Kazakhstan in the 1990s. Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization, 13, 373-392.

 

Kinney, B. (2023). “The Rifle is the Symbol”: The AK-47 in Global South Iconography. Journal of World History, 34(2), 277–314. https://doi.org/10.1353/jwh.2023.a902055

 

 

Magdalena, S., & Suhatman, R. (2020). The Effect of Government Expenditures, Domestic Invesment, Foreign Invesment to the Economic Growth of Primary Sector in Central Kalimantan. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 3(3), 1692-1703.

 

Mantovani, E. C., de Oliveira, P. E. B., de Queiroz, D. M., Fernandes, A. L. T., & Cruvinel, P. E. (2019). Current status and future prospect of the agricultural mechanization in Brazil.

 

Mao, Y. (2021). The Economic Interpretation and Realization Form of the Integration of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Industries under the Strategy of Rural Revitalization. E3S Web of Conferences, 235, 2001-. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202123502001

 

Min, J., Kim, Y., Lee, S., Jang, T.-W., Kim, I., & Song, J. (2019). The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Its Impact on Occupational Health and Safety, Worker’s Compensation and Labor Conditions. Safety and Health at Work, 10(4), 400–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2019.09.00

 

Neufeld, M., Bobrova, A., Davletov, K., Štelemėkas, M., Stoppel, R., Ferreira‐Borges, C., Breda, J., & Rehm, J. (2021). Alcohol control policies in Former Soviet Union countries: A narrative review of three decades of policy changes and their apparent effects. Drug and Alcohol Review, 40(3), 350–367. https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.13204

 

Noel, P. (2019). Nord Stream II and Europe’s Strategic Autonomy. Survival (London), 61(6), 89–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2019.1688569

 

Pessoa Filho, J. B. (2021). Space Age: Past, Present and Possible Futures. Journal of Aerospace Technology and Management, 13. https://doi.org/10.1590/jatm.v13.1226

 

POP, L. M., IORGA, M., & Beatrice-Gabriela, I. O. A. N. (2020). DUAL-QUALITY FOOD. THE NEED FOR A SOLID HEALTH EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS. Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Bioethica, 49-60.

 

Shakhmuradyan, G. (2022). Does Fiscal Policy Matter for Business R&D Investment? Panel Data Evidence from Central and Eastern Europe. Central European Business Review, 11(3), 79–96. https://doi.org/10.18267/j.cebr.297

 

Sharma, A., & Singh, B. J. (2020). Evolution of Industrial Revolutions: A Review. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, 9(11), 66–73. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.I7144.0991120

 

Smith, J. P., & Burgett, J. M. Review of the Current State of Hiring International Engineering Students.

 

Stone, M., Machtynger, J., Machtynger, L., & Aravopoulou, E. (2020). The making of information nations. The Bottom Line (New York, N.Y.), 33(1), 12–26. https://doi.org/10.1108/BL-09-2019-0110

 

The Western European Left and the First Moon Landing: The Fall of Scientific Enthusiasm and the Ebb of Socialism. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2022.2046129

 

Tomac, N., Radonja, R., & Bonato, J. (2019). Analysis of Henry Ford’s contribution to production and management. Pomorstvo (Rijeka : 1999), 33(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.31217/p.33.1.4

 

Tran, V. T. (2021). Exhibiting Coca-Cola at universal exhibitions. Food, Culture, & Society, 24(2), 269–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/15528014.2021.1873036

 

Vasilev, A., & Felton, S. (2024). Post-Soviet Economic and Political Interdependencies: The Case of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. IUP Journal of International Relations, 18(1).

 

Wang, Q., Zhang, F., & Li, R. (2024). Free trade and carbon emissions revisited: The asymmetric impacts of trade diversification and trade openness. Sustainable Development (Bradford, West Yorkshire, England), 32(1), 876–901. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2703

 

Witze, A. (2022). Small steps … once again. Nature (London), 612(7940), 397–399. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-04425-6

 

Zhang, Z., & Seely, B. (2019). A historical review of China-US cooperation in space: Launching commercial satellites and technology transfer, 1978–2000. Space Policy, 50, 101333.